Evanston’s Big Wig Tacos & Burritos linked to Norovirus Outbreak

The Evanston Health and Human Services Department is investigating a Norovirus outbreak along with Northwestern University. Investigators have learned that people reported stomach cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea after eating at Big Wig Tacos & Burritos during an event on Saturday, November 18, at which the restaurant offered $1 burritos to students from the university. The event was held between 1 p.m. and 8 p.m. this past Saturday. Big Wig Tacos & Burritos has a location at 950 Church St. in downtown Evanston.

Soon afterward, the Evanston Health and Human Services Department began receiving complaints – prompting an immediate inspection of Big Wig Tacos & Burritos. The department reviewed the restaurant’s cleaning and sanitizing procedures and found that the restaurant does have an employee health policy.

Everyone who dined at Big Wig Tacos & Burritos in Evanston on Saturday, Nov. 18, is asked to complete this questionnaire, regardless of whether they got sick.

When someone talks about having “the stomach flu,” they are probably describing acute-onset gastroenteritis caused by one of the noroviruses, which are members of the “calcivirus” family (Caliciviridae). Noroviruses are entirely unrelated to influenza viruses.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that noroviruses cause nearly 21 million cases of acute gastroenteritis annually, making noroviruses the leading cause of gastroenteritis in adults in the United States. Norovirus is highly contagious and transmitted by infected individuals at an enormous rate. It is simple genetically and evolves quickly, and exposure does not lead to lasting immunity.

Nature has created an ingenious bug in norovirus. The round blue ball structure of norovirus is a protein surrounding the virus’s genetic material. The virus attaches to the outside of cells lining the intestine, and then transfers its genetic material into those cells. Once the genetic material has been transferred, norovirus reproduces, finally killing the human cells and releasing new copies of itself that attach to more cells of the intestine’s lining. 

The virus, due to its structure, is also very stable in the environment and is resistant to many sanitizers/disinfectants. It is a major concern for several sectors including health care, education, and tourism, and in food, shellfish, and produce. But most foodborne norovirus outbreaks occur in restaurants or institutional food service settings.

Norovirus:  Marler Clark, The Food Safety Law Firm, is the nation’s leading law firm representing victims of Norovirus outbreaks. The Norovirus lawyers of Marler Clark have represented thousands of victims of Norovirus and other foodborne illness outbreaks and have recovered over $850 million for clients.  Marler Clark is the only law firm in the nation with a practice focused exclusively on foodborne illness litigation.  Our Norovirus lawyers have litigated Norovirus cases stemming from outbreaks traced to a number of food products and restaurants.  

If you or a family member became ill with Norovirus after consuming food and you’re interested in pursuing a legal claim, contact the Marler Clark Norovirus attorneys for a free case evaluation.

Restaurants and food retailers that have received shipments of oysters harvested from NS 10, an oyster harvest area in Nova Scotia, Canada on June 9, 2023, and were distributed by Bill and Stanley Oyster Co. of Nova Scotia, Canada through U.S. distributors to 17 states and the District of Columbia: CA, CO, CT, DC, DE, FL, GA, IN, MA, MD, MI, MN, NJ, NY, OH, PA, TX, and WI. The FDA is working to obtain additional information on distribution of the oysters and will continue to monitor the investigation, provide assistance to state authorities, and update our communications to the public as needed.

Consumers, especially those who are or could become pregnant, the elderly, and persons with weakened immune systems, who have recently consumed raw oysters and suspect they have food poisoning should seek medical care immediately.

• Fortune brand oysters harvested from harvest location NS 10 in Nova Scotia, Canada on June 9, 2023 that were distributed to 17 states and the District of Columbia: CA, CO, CT, DC, DE, FL, GA, IN, MA, MD, MI, MN, NJ, NY, OH, PA, TX, and WI.
• Oyster containers include the harvest area information and original shipper certification number NS 6024 SS WS on the attached product tag.

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is advising consumers not to eat, and restaurants and food retailers not to sell, and to dispose of raw oysters that were harvested from harvest location NS 10 in Nova Scotia, Canada on June 9, 2023 and were distributed to 17 states and the District of Columbia: CA, CO, CT, DC, DE, FL, GA, IN, MA, MD, MI, MN, NJ, NY, OH, PA, TX, and WI. Consumers who purchased oysters after June 9, 2023 should check the packaging to see if they were harvested from location NS 10 on June 9, 2023. Contaminated shellfish can cause illness if eaten raw, particularly in people with compromised immune systems. Food contaminated with norovirus may look, smell, and taste normal. Consumers of these products who are experiencing symptoms of norovirus illness should contact their healthcare provider, who should report their symptoms to their local Health Department.

On June 30, 2023, the Minnesota Department of Health (MDH) reported to CDC an outbreak consisting of 9 cases of norovirus illness associated with the consumption of oysters from Nova Scotia. The oysters harvested from Nova Scotia were sold in both Canada and the U.S. FDA is working with federal, state, and local officials, and with Canadian public health authorities to investigate this outbreak, obtain additional information on distribution of the oysters, and determine if additional illnesses have occurred.

Retailers should not sell or serve raw oysters from harvest location NS 10 with a harvest date of June 9, 2023, which will be printed on product tags.

Shellfish can cause illness if contaminated and eaten raw, particularly in people with compromised immune systems. Food contaminated with norovirus may look, smell, and taste normal.
FDA Actions

The FDA is issuing this alert advising consumers not to eat, and restaurants and food retailers not to sell or serve, raw oysters from harvest location NS 10 on June 9, 2023 that were distributed to 17 states and the District of Columbia: CA, CO, CT, DC, DE, FL, GA, IN, MA, MD, MI, MN, NJ, NY, OH, PA, TX, and WI.

The FDA will continue to monitor the investigation and provide updates and assistance to state authorities as needed.

People of all ages can get infected and sick with norovirus. The most common symptoms of norovirus are diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, and stomach pain. Other symptoms include fever, headache, and body ache.

A person usually develops symptoms 12 to 48 hours after being exposed to norovirus. Most people with norovirus illness get better within 1 to 3 days.

If you have norovirus illness, you can feel extremely ill, and vomit or have diarrhea many times a day. This can lead to dehydration, especially in young children, older adults, and people with other illnesses. Symptoms of dehydration include decrease in urination, dry mouth and throat, and feeling dizzy when standing up. Children who are dehydrated may cry with few or no tears and be unusually sleepy or fussy.

If you think you or someone you are caring for is severely dehydrated, call your healthcare provider.
Recommendations for Restaurants and Retailers

Restaurants and retailers should not sell or serve the potentially contaminated oysters. Restaurants and retailers should dispose of any products by throwing them in the garbage or returning them to their distributor for destruction.

Restaurants and retailers should also be aware that shellfish may be a source of pathogens and should control the potential for cross-contamination of food processing equipment and the food processing environment. They should follow the steps below:

• Wash hands with warm water and soap following the cleaning and sanitation process.
• Retailers, restaurants, and other food service operators who have processed and packaged any potentially contaminated products need to be concerned about cross-contamination of cutting surfaces and utensils through contact with the potentially contaminated products.
• Retailers that have sold bulk product should clean and sanitize the containers used to hold the product.
• Regular frequent cleaning and sanitizing of food contact surfaces and utensils used in food preparation may help to minimize the likelihood of cross-contamination.

Health officials are warning consumers not to eat certain raw oysters harvested in Republic of Korea (ROK) due to possible norovirus contamination. The alert from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) includes the following oysters:

Frozen raw oysters, in half shell, Individual Quick Freezing (IQF), and block form, harvested between 2/10/2022 and 2/24/2022 and between 4/06/2022 and 4/21/2022 from Designated Area No. II, and exported by Dai One Food Co., Ltd. (KR-8-SP), and Central Fisheries Co., Ltd. (KR-6-SP), in Republic of Korea (ROK). More information can be found in the FDA advisory.

The Minnesota Department of Health (MDH), Minneapolis Health Department and the Minnesota Department of Agriculture are working with federal officials and public health agencies in other states to investigate norovirus illnesses associated with these oysters. At least five illnesses in Minnesota are linked to oysters served at a restaurant, and five additional illnesses in Minnesota are suspected to be linked to the oysters. The investigation is ongoing.

The frozen oysters have a long shelf life (2 years) and were available at both restaurants and grocery stores in Minnesota. Officials are urging the public, restaurants and distributors to check their freezers and discard oysters harvested in Republic of Korea that are included in FDA’s alert.

Norovirus and other pathogens found in raw oysters can be destroyed by cooking to 145 degrees Fahrenheit before eating.

Symptoms of norovirus typically include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or stomach cramps that begin 12 to 48 hours after ingestion of the virus.

“People with norovirus can spread it to others even after symptoms stop,” MDH Epidemiologist Supervisor Carlota Medus said. “The best way to limit spread is to wash your hands well with soap and water after using the bathroom and before preparing food for others.”

Audience

• Restaurants and food retailers that have received shipments of frozen raw oysters, in half shell, Individual Quick Freezing (IQF), and block form, harvested between 2/10/2022 and 2/24/2022 and on 4/13/2022 and 4/14/2022 from Designated Area No. II, and exported by Dai One Food Co., Ltd., Republic of Korea (ROK).
• Consumers, especially those who are or could become pregnant, the elderly, and persons with weakened immune systems, who have recently consumed raw oysters in Hawaii, Georgia, or Minnesota and suspect they have food poisoning should seek medical care immediately.

Product

• Frozen oysters harvested between 2/10/2022 and 2/24/2022 and on 4/13/2022 and 4/14/2022 from Designated Area No. II, Dai One Food Co., Ltd., ROK. The oysters were shipped from the ROK and distributed in Hawaii, Georgia, and Minnesota.
• The Korean firm has voluntarily recalled frozen raw half shell oysters, frozen IQF oysters, and frozen oyster blocks harvested from Designated Area II harvest area between 2/10/2022 and 2/24/2022 and on 4/13/2022 and 4/14/2022 including lot numbers D021031, D021041, and D020481.

Purpose

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is advising consumers not to eat, as well as restaurants along with food retailers not to sell, and to dispose of Dai One Food Co., Ltd., frozen raw half shell, IQF, and block form oysters with harvest dates between 2/10/2022 and 2/24/2022 and 4/13/2022 and 4/14/2022 from Designated Area No. II and sold in Hawaii, Georgia, and Minnesota.

Summary of Problem and Scope

The Hawaii Department of Health notified the FDA of five illnesses from individuals who consumed raw oyster shooters at a restaurant in Hawaii on 5/10/23. Traceback information revealed the source for the implicated raw oysters was from a shipment by Dai One Food Co., Ltd., ROK, harvested on 4/13/2022 and 4/14/2022 from Designated Area No. II. Samples collected from the 04/14/2022 harvest date were tested for the presence of norovirus. Norovirus GII was detected in one of the two samples collected. Further traceback information identified shipments from Dai One Food Co., Ltd., ROK of oysters harvested on 4/13 2022 and 4/14/2022 from Designated Area No. II were also distributed to Georgia.

In addition, the Minnesota Department of Health notified the FDA of five norovirus illnesses from individuals who consumed raw oysters at a restaurant in Minnesota on 6/3/2023 and 6/4/2023. Traceback information revealed the source for the implicated raw oysters was from a shipment by Dai One Food Co., Ltd., ROK, harvested between 2/10/2022 and 2/24/2022 in Designated Area No. II. These oysters were exported to a distributor in New York.

FDA Actions

The FDA is issuing this alert advising consumers not to eat and restaurants and food retailers not to sell oysters harvested between 2/10/2022 and 2/24/2022 and on 4/13/2022 and 4/14/2022 from Designated Area No. II from Dai One Food Co., Ltd., in ROK, due to possible norovirus GII contamination. The FDA notified State Shellfish Authorities and the Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference (ISSC) of the import and harvest details.

As the FDA continues to monitor the investigation, we will provide additional information on further interstate distribution and provide assistance to states as needed. If contaminated oysters are found to have been distributed to additional states, we will update this public health alert. Please check back for more information.

Symptoms of Norovirus

Norovirus can cause a sporadic gastroenteritis, in populations ranging from children to the elderly. The infections are more frequent in children under age 5 than in adults. The most common symptoms of norovirus are diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, and stomach pain. Other symptoms include fever, headache, and body ache.

Most people infected with norovirus begin to develop symptoms 12 to 48 hours after infection. Symptoms usually last one to four days.

What Do Restaurants and Retailers Need to Do?

Restaurants and retailers should not sell the potentially affected raw oysters. Restaurants and retailers should dispose of any products by throwing them in the garbage or returning to their distributor for destruction.

Restaurants and retailers should also be aware that the oysters may be a source of pathogens and should control the potential for cross–contamination of food processing equipment and the food processing environment. They should follow the steps below:

• Wash hands with warm water and soap following the cleaning and sanitation process.
• Retailers, restaurants, and other food service operators who have processed and packaged any potentially contaminated products need to be concerned about cross contamination of cutting surfaces and utensils through contact with the potentially contaminated products.
• Retailers that have sold bulk product should clean and sanitize the containers used to hold the product.
• Regular frequent cleaning and sanitizing of food contact surfaces and utensils used in food preparation may help to minimize the likelihood of cross–contamination.

An Introduction to Norovirus

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that noroviruses cause nearly 21 million cases of acute gastroenteritis annually, making noroviruses the leading cause of gastroenteritis in adults in the United States. [5, 9, 13, 31]  According to a relatively recent article in the New England Journal of Medicine, 

The Norwalk agent was the first virus that was identified as causing gastroenteritis in humans, but recognition of its importance as a pathogen has been limited because of the lack of available, sensitive, and routine diagnostic methods. Recent advances in understanding the molecular biology of the noroviruses, coupled with applications of novel diagnostic techniques, have radically altered our appreciation of their impact. Noroviruses are now recognized as being the leading cause of epidemics of gastroenteritis and an important cause of sporadic gastroenteritis in both children and adults. [16]

Of the viruses, only the common cold is reported more often than a norovirus infection—also referred to as viral gastroenteritis. [3]

Nature has created an ingenious bug in norovirus. [21] The round blue ball structure of norovirus is actually a protein surrounding the virus’s genetic material. [16, 33]  The virus attaches to the outside of cells lining the intestine, and then transfers its genetic material into those cells. [33] Once the genetic material has been transferred, norovirus reproduces, finally killing the human cells and releasing new copies of itself that attach to more cells of the intestine’s lining. [12, 15, 33]

Norovirus (previously called “Norwalk-like virus” or NLV) is a member of the family Caliciviridae. [15, 33]  The name derives from the Latin for chalice—calyx—meaning cup-like, and refers to the indentations of the virus surface. [33] The family of Caliciviridae consists of several distinct groups of viruses that were first named after the places where outbreaks occurred. [30] The first of these outbreaks occurred in 1968 among schoolchildren in Norwalk, Ohio. [16] The prototype strain was identified four years later, in 1972, and was the first virus identified that specifically caused gastroenteritis in humans. [16, 33] Other discoveries followed, with each strain name based on the location of its discovery—e.g., Montgomery County, Snow Mountain, Mexico, Hawaii, Parmatta, Taunton, and Toronto viruses. [15, 21] A study published in 1977 found that the Toronto virus was the second most common cause of gastroenteritis in children. [27] Eventually this confusing nomenclature was resolved, first in favor of calling each of the strains a Norwalk-like virus, and then simply, a norovirus – the term used today. [16, 33]

Humans are the only host of norovirus, and norovirus has several mechanisms that allow it to spread quickly and easily. [15] Norovirus infects humans in a pathway similar to the influenza virus’ mode of infection. [5, 15, 33] In addition to their similar infective pathways, norovirus and influenza also evolve to avoid the immune system in a similar way. [21] Both viruses are driven by heavy immune selection pressure and antigenic drift, allowing evasion of the immune system, which results in outbreaks. [21, 30] Norovirus is able to survive a wide range of temperatures and in many different environments. [15, 33] Moreover, the viruses can spread quickly, especially in places where people are in close proximity, such as cruise ships and airline flights, even those of short duration. [14, 15] As noted by the CDC in its Final Trip Report, 

noroviruses can cause extended outbreaks because of their high infectivity, persistence in the environment, resistance to common disinfectants, and difficulty in controlling their transmission through routine sanitary measures. [10]

Norovirus outbreaks can result from the evolution of one strain due to the pressure of population immunity. [12, 32] Typically, norovirus outbreaks are dominated by one strain, but can also involve more than one strain. [9, 11, 15] For example, some outbreaks associated with shellfish have been found to contain up to seven different norovirus strains. [30, 38] Swedish outbreak studies also reveal a high degree of genetic variability, indicating a need for wide detection methods when studying these outbreaks. [23]

By way of further example, in 2006, there was a large increase in the number of norovirus cases on cruise ships. Norovirus cases were increasing throughout Europe and the Pacific at the same time. [36] One issue with cruise ships is the close contact between people as living quarters are so close, and despite education efforts, there still seems to be a lack of public understanding regarding how the illness is spread. [7, 14] On the other hand, reporting occurs much more quickly in these situations because of the close proximity and concentration of illness, allowing for the quicker detection of outbreaks. [8] Cruise ship outbreaks often occur when new strains of norovirus are appearing, providing a good indicator system for new norovirus strains.  [7, 8] In this case, two new variants appeared within the global epidemic genotype, suggesting a strong pressure for evolution against the human immune system. [12] This points to the need for an international system of guidelines in tracing norovirus outbreaks. [36]

How is norovirus transmitted?

Norovirus causes nearly 60% of all foodborne illness outbreaks. [31] Norovirus is transmitted primarily through the fecal-oral route, with fewer than 100 norovirus particles needed to cause infection. [10, 15, 33] Transmission occurs either person-to-person or through contamination of food or water.  [1, 15, 33] CDC statistics show that food is the most common vehicle of transmission for noroviruses; of 232 outbreaks of norovirus between July 1997 and June 2000, 57% were foodborne, 16% were spread from person-to-person, and 3% were waterborne. [6, 31] When food is the vehicle of transmission, contamination occurs most often through a food handler improperly handling a food directly before it is eaten. [4, 9, 10]  

Infected individuals shed the virus in large numbers in their vomit and stool, shedding the highest amount of viral particles while they are ill.  [5, 33] Aerosolized vomit has also been implicated as a mode of norovirus transmission. [24] Previously, it was thought that viral shedding ceased approximately 100 hours after infection; however, some individuals continue to shed norovirus long after they have recovered from it, in some cases up to 28 days after experiencing symptoms. [28, 31, 35] Viral shedding can also precede symptoms, which occurs in approximately 30% of cases. [16] Often, an infected food handler may not even show symptoms. [9] In these cases, people can carry the same viral load as those who do experience symptoms. [5, 9, 33]

A Japanese study examined the ability of asymptomatic food handlers to transfer norovirus. Approximately 12% of asymptomatic food handlers were carriers for one of the norovirus genotypes. [28] This was the first report of norovirus molecular epidemiology relating asymptomatic individuals to outbreaks, suggesting that asymptomatic individuals are an important link in the infectivity pathway. [15, 28] Asymptomatic infection may occur because some people may have acquired immunity, which explains why some show symptoms upon infection and some do not. [16, 28, 33] Such immunity does not last long, though. [16, 21, 28] These discoveries reveal just how complicated the pathway of norovirus infection is, as well as how difficult it is to define the true period of infectivity. [30] Furthermore, it remains unclear why some people do not become sick with norovirus even when they are exposed. [16, 21, 32] Very little is known about the differences in hygiene practices, behaviors, and personal susceptibility between those who become infected and those who do not, which brings up the potential for more research. [17] Discrepancies exist in the published research about infective doses for norovirus, with earlier studies having used a much higher dose to trigger immune responses. [16]

Symptoms & Risks of Norovirus Infection

Norovirus illness usually develops 24 to 48 hours after ingestion of contaminated food or water. [5, 16, 33] Symptoms typically last a relatively short amount of time, approximately 24 to 48 hours. [5, 25] These symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.  Headache and low-grade fever may also accompany this illness. [5, 25, 33]  People infected with norovirus usually recover in two to three days without serious or long-term health effects. [5, 25]

Although symptoms usually only last one to two days in healthy individuals, norovirus infection can become quite serious in children, the elderly, and immune-compromised individuals. [10, 18, 33] In some cases, severe dehydration, malnutrition, and even death can result from norovirus infection, especially among children and among older and immune-compromised adults in hospitals and nursing homes. [25, 30] In England and Wales, 20% of those over the age of 65 die due to infectious intestinal illness other than Clostridium difficile. [18] Recently, there have been reports of some long-term effects associated with norovirus, including necrotizing entercolitis, chronic diarrhea, and post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome, but more data is needed to support these claims. [37]

Diagnosing a Norovirus Infection

Diagnosis of norovirus illness is based on the combination of symptoms, particularly the prominence of vomiting, little fever, and the short duration of illness. [5, 25, 33] If a known norovirus outbreak is in progress, public health officials may obtain specimens from ill individuals for testing in a lab. [5, 9] These lab tests consist of identifying norovirus under an electron microscope. A reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction test (RT-PCR assay) also can detect norovirus in food, water, stool samples, and on surfaces. These tests isolate and replicate the suspected virus’ genetic material for analysis. [25, 33] An ELISA can also be performed, which detects antigens. They are easier to perform than RT-PCR, but less sensitive and can also result in many false negatives. [9, 11]

Treating a Norovirus Infection

There is no specific treatment available for norovirus. [16, 33] In most healthy people, the illness is self-limiting and resolves in a few days; however, outbreaks among infants, children, elderly, and immune-compromised populations may result in severe complications among those affected.  [16, 27, 30, 33] Death may result without prompt measures. [5, 16, 25, 33] The replacement of fluids and minerals such as sodium, potassium and calcium – otherwise known as electrolytes – lost due to persistent diarrhea is vital. This can be done either by drinking large amounts of liquids, or intravenously. [16, 25]

Recent research has looked into the potential for developing a norovirus vaccine. [9, 16, 37] Researchers indicate that coming up with a norovirus vaccine would be similar to vaccinating for influenza, by using screening in order to select for the most prevalent strains. This is a quite challenging process. [37] Other challenges include the fact that cell culture and small-animal models are limited, host pre-exposure histories are complicated, and there is always the potential for the evolution of novel immune escape variants, rendering the vaccine useless. [13, 33] Furthermore, scientists would likely face a lack of funding to develop a vaccine because vaccine development is expensive. [12, 21]

Preventing Norovirus Infection

Common settings for norovirus outbreaks include restaurants and events with catered meals (36%), nursing homes (23%), schools (13%), and vacation settings or cruise ships (10%). [6] Proper hand washing is the best way to prevent the spread of norovirus. [9, 17, 25]

The good news about norovirus is that it does not multiply in foods as many bacteria do. [5, 31, 33] In addition, thorough cooking destroys this virus.  [5, 25] To avoid norovirus, make sure the food you eat is cooked completely. [5, 9, 10] While traveling in in areas that have polluted water sources, raw vegetables should be washed thoroughly before being served, and travelers should drink only boiled drinks or carbonated bottled beverages without ice. [9, 16]

Shellfish (oysters, clams, mussels) pose the greatest risk and any particular serving may be contaminated with norovirus; there is no way to detect a contaminated oyster, clam, or mussel from a safe one. [5, 31] Shellfish become contaminated when their waters become contaminated—e.g., when raw sewage is dumped overboard by recreational or commercial boaters).  [19, 33] Shellfish are filter feeders and will concentrate virus particles present in their environment. With shellfish, only complete cooking offers reliable protection; steaming does not kill the virus or prevent its transmission. [19] Some researchers suggest that norovirus monitoring in shellfish areas could be a good preventive strategy as well. [22] Waterborne norovirus outbreaks are ubiquitous, but difficult to recognize. Improved analysis of environmental samples would have the potential to significantly improve the detection for norovirus in shellfish waters. [20]

Finally, and as briefly mentioned earlier, outbreaks of norovirus infections have become synonymous with cruise ships. [7, 8, 36] Healthcare facilities also experience a high incidence of norovirus outbreaks.  [6, 30, 35]The CDC has published information regarding the prevention of norovirus outbreaks on cruise ships and in healthcare facilities on its website. [6, 7] Once a case has occurred, even more stringent hygienic measures than normal are required in order to prevent an outbreak, particularly on an enclosed space such as a cruise ship. [17]

References

1. American Public Health Association (APHA), Heymann, David L., editor, “Norovirus Infection,” in CONTROL OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES MANUAL, pp. 227-29, (18^th Ed. 2008).
2. Antonio, J, et al., “Passenger Behaviors During Norovirus Outbreaks on Cruise Ships,” INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF TRAVEL MAGAZINE, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 172-176 (May-June 2008). Abstract available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18494694
3. Benson, V. and Merano, M.A., “Current estimates from the National Health Interview Survey 1995,” VITAL HEALTH STATISTICS, SERIES 10 (Nat’l Center for Health Statistics 1998). Abstract available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9914773
4. Cáceres, VM, et al., “A viral gastroenteritis outbreak associated with person-to-person spread among hospital staff,” INFECTION CONTROL AND HOSPITAL EPIDEMIOLOGY, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 162-7 (March 1998). Abstract available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9552183
5. CDC, Norovirus:  Technical Fact Sheet, from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Web site,http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/revb/gastro/norovirus-factsheet.htm (last modified on August 24, 2011) (last checked on Jan. 3, 2012). 
6. CDC, Norovirus in Healthcare Facilities Fact Sheet, released December 21, 2006, available through Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website, at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/revb/gastro/downloads/noro-hc-facilities-fs-508.pdf (last checked on January 4, 2012).
7. CDC, Facts about Norovirus on Cruise Ships, last updated July 20, 2009, available through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website, at http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/vsp/pub/Norovirus/Norovirus.htm (last checked on January 4, 2012). 
8. CDC, “Outbreaks of Gastroenteritis Associated with Noroviruses on Cruise Ships – United States, 2002,” MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT, Vol. 51, No. 49, pp. 1112-15 (Dec. 13, 2002). Full text available online at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5149a2.htm
9. CDC, “Updated Norovirus Outbreak Management and Disease Prevention Guidelines,” MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT, Vol. 60, Recommendations and Reports No. 3, pp. 1-15 (March 4, 2011). Full text available online at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr6003a1.htm
10. CDC, “Norwalk-like viruses’—Public health consequences and outbreak management,” MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT, Vol. 50, Recommendations and Reports No. 9, pp. 1-18 (June 1, 2001). Full text available online at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5009a1.htm
11. Duizer, E, et al., “Probabilities in norovirus outbreak diagnosis,” JOURNAL OF CLINICAL VIROLOGY, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 38-42 (Sept. 2007). Abstract available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17631044
12. Donaldson, E., et al., “Viral shape-shifting: norovirus evasion of the human immune system,” NATURE REVIEWS, MICROBIOLOGY, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 231-239 (March 2010). Abstract available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20125087
13. Fankhauser, RL, et al., “Epidemiologic and molecular trends of ‘Norwalk-like viruses’ associated with outbreaks of gastroenteritis in the United States,” JOURNAL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Vol.186, No. 1, pp. 1-7 (July 1, 2002). Full text of article available online at http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/186/1/1.long
14. Gerencher, Christine L., Reporter, “Understanding How Disease Is Transmitted via Air Travel: Summary of a Symposium,” Conference Proceedings 47, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies (2010). Full summary available online at http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/conf/CP47.pdf
15. Glass, RI, et al., “The Epidemiology of Enteric Caliciviruses from Humans: A Reassessment Using New Diagnostics,” JOURNAL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Vol. 181, Supplement 2, pp. S254-61 (2000). Full text available online at http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/181/Supplement_2/S254.long
16. Glass, R, Parashar, U.D., and Estes, M.K., “Norovirus Gastroenteritis,” NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE, Vol. 361, No. 18, pp. 1776-1785 (Oct. 29, 2009). Full text available online at http://www.sepeap.org/archivos/pdf/11191.pdf
17. Janneke, C, et al., “Enhanced Hygiene Measures and Norovirus Transmission during an Outbreak,” EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Vol. 15, No., pp. 24-30 (Jan. 2009). Full text available online at http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/15/1/08-0299_article.htm
18. Harris, JP, et al., “Deaths from Norovirus among the Elderly, England and Wales,” EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Vol. 14, No. 10, pp. 1548-1552 (Oct. 2008). Full text available online athttp://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/14/10/08-0188_article.htm
19. Kirkland, KB, et al., “Steaming oysters does not prevent Norwalk-like gastroenteritis,” PUBLIC HEALTH REPORTS, Vol. 111, pp. 527-30 (1996). Full text available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1381901/pdf/pubhealthrep00045-0057.pdf
20. Maunula, L, Miettinen, IT, and Bonsdorff, CH, “Norovirus Outbreaks from Drinking Water,” EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Vol. 11, No. 11, pp. 1716-1721 (2005).  Full text available online at http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/content/11/11/pdfs/v11-n11.pdf
21. Lopman, Ben, Zambon, Maria, and Brown, David, “The Evolution of Norovirus, the ‘Gastric Flu,’” Public Library of Science: Medicine, Vol. 5, Issue 2, pp.187-189 (Feb. 2010). Full text available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2235896/pdf/pmed.0050042.pdf
22. Lowther, J, Henshilwood, K, and Lees DN, “Determination of Norovirus Contamination in Oysters from Two Commercial Harvesting Areas over an Extended Period, Using Semiquantitative Real-Time Reverse Transcription PCR,” JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, Vol. 71, No. 7, pp. 1427-1433 (2008). Abstract available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18680943
23. Lysen, M, et al., “Genetic Diversity among Food-Borne and Waterborne Norovirus Strains Causing Outbreaks in Sweden,” JOURNAL OF CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY, Vol. 47, No. 8, pp. 2411-2418 (2009). Full text available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2725682/?tool=pubmed
24. Marks, PJ, et al., “Evidence of airborne transmission of Norwalk-like virus (NLV) in a hotel restaurant,” EPIDEMIOLOGY AND INFECTION, Vol. 124, No. 3, pp. 481-87 (June 2000). Full text available online at http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/ehs/Docs/Evidence_for_Airborne_Transmission_of_Norwalk-like_Virus.pdf
25. Mayo Clinic, “Norovirus Infection,” Mayo Clinic Web site, information last updated April 15, 2011 (as of last checking on Jan. 3, 2012), available online at http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/norovirus/DS00942/DSECTION=1.  
26. Mead, Paul M, et al., “Food-related Illness and Death in the United States,” EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 607-25 (September-October 1999). Full text available online at  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2627714/pdf/10511517.pdf
27. Middleton, PJ, Szmanski, MT, and Petric M, “Viruses associated with acute gastroenteritis in young children,” AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISEASES OF CHILDREN, Vol. 131, No. 7, pp. 733-37 (July 1977). Abstract available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/195461
28. Patterson, T, Hutchin, P, and Palmer S, “Outbreak of SRSV gastroenteritis at an international conference traced to food handled by a post symptomatic caterer,” EPIDEMIOLOGY AND INFECTION,  Vol. 111, No. 1, pp. 157-162 (Aug. 1993). Available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2271183/?tool=pubmed
29. Ozawa, K, et al., “Norovirus Infections in Symptomatic and Asymptomatic Food Handlers in Japan,” JOURNAL OF CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 12, pp. 3996-4005 (Oct. 2007). Abstract available online at http://jcm.asm.org/content/45/12/3996.abstract
30. Said, Maria, Perl, Trish, and Sears Cynthia, “Gastrointestinal Flu: Norovirus in Health Care and Long-Term Care Facilities,” HEALTHCARE EPIDEMIOLOGY, vol. 47, pp. 1202-1208 (Nov. 1, 2008). Full text available online at http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/47/9/1202.full.pdf+html
31. Scallan, E., et al., “Foodborne Illness Acquired in the United States—Major Pathogens,” EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 7-15 (2011). Full text available online at http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/17/1/p1-1101_article.htm
32. Siebenga, JJ, et al., “Norovirus Illness Is a Global Problem: Emergence and Spread of Norovirus GII.4 Variants, 2001–2007,” JOURNAL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Vol. 200, No. 5, pp. 802-812 (2009). Full text available online at http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/200/5/802.long
33. Treanor, John J. and Dolin, Raphael, “Norwalk Virus and Other Calciviruses,” in Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Fifth Edition, Chap. 163, pp. 1949-56 (2000, Mandell, Bennett, and Dolan, Editors).
34. Tu, E.T., et al., “Epidemics of Gastroenteritis during 2006 Were Associated with the Spread of Norovirus GII.4 Variants 2006a and 2006b,” CLINICAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 413-420 (Feb. 1, 2008). Full text available online at http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/46/3/413.full
35. Tu E.T., et al., “Norovirus excretion in an age-care setting,” JOURNAL OF CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY, Vol. 46, pp. 2119-21 (June 2008). Full text available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2446857/pdf/2198-07.pdf
36. Verhoef, L, et al., “Emergence of New Norovirus Variants on Spring Cruise Ships and Prediction of Winter Epidemics,” EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 238-243 (Feb. 2008). Full text available online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2600213/pdf/06-1567_finalR.pdf
37. Vinje, J, “A Norovirus Vaccine on the Horizon?” EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES, Vol. 202, No. 11, pp. 1623-1625 (2010). Full text available online at http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/202/11/1623.full
38. Westrell T, et al., “Norovirus outbreaks linked to oyster consumption in the United Kingdom, Norway, France, Sweden and Denmark,”  EURO-SURVEILLANCE (European Communicable Disease Bulletin), Vol. 15, No. 12 (Mar. 25 2010). Full text available online at http://www.eurosurveillance.org/images/dynamic/EE/V15N12/art19524.pdf

Norovirus:  Marler Clark, The Food Safety Law Firm, is the nation’s leading law firm representing victims of Norovirusoutbreaks. The Norovirus lawyers of Marler Clark have represented thousands of victims of Norovirus and other foodborne illness outbreaks and have recovered over $850 million for clients.  Marler Clark is the only law firm in the nation with a practice focused exclusively on foodborne illness litigation.  Our Norovirus lawyers have litigated Norovirus cases stemming from outbreaks traced to a number of food products and restaurants.  

If you or a family member became ill with Norovirus after consuming food and you’re interested in pursuing a legal claim, contact the Marler Clark Norovirus attorneys for a free case evaluation.